Tag Archives: coloured prints

A Colourful Portrait of Stefan Batory

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Single-leaf woodcuts, printed separately from books, were known in Europe since the fifteenth century. The images, usually with additional text, were printed only on one side of the sheet of paper. It was a popular form of printing in German countries. Many Einblattholzschnitte were coloured, often with the use of stencils. It seems that single-leaf woodcuts were quite rare in Poland; it might be caused either by the lack of preserved examples or insufficient research on this issue.

Among numerous representations of Stefan Batory there is a group of images which show the king in a similar way. They represent the ruler as the Prince of Transylvania, in a characteristic attire. This schemata was introduced by an etching made by Jost Amman in 1576 and repeated later by painters and printers (Mrozowski 2021: 176). One of such repetitions was a colourful single-leaf woodcut, a half-length portrait of Batory, face three-quarter to the right.

Fig. 1. Portrait of Stefan Batory (Viva imago Stephani Primi…), woodcut, Cracow (?), 1576 (?), Graphische Sammlung und Fotoarchiv, Zentralbibliothek Zürich, Zürich, Inv. no 000003583. Source: graphikportal.org (public domain).

Four editions of this print have been mentioned in the literature so far: an unknown one from the National Library (Komornicki 1935: 24), another one from the collection of Johann Jacob Wick, which is held in the Graphische Sammlung of the Zentralbibliothek in Zürich (fig. 1, inv. no 000003583, Pirożyński 1993: 92-92; Pirożyński 1995: 294, cat. 14) and, finally, two prints which belong to Książnica Kopernikańska in Toruń (inv. no K. fol. 143, Pirożyński 1993: 93-94). The last two images are incomplete and each of them is cut into two pieces; one presents the left part of the composition (fig. 2) and the other one its right part (fig. 3). The bottom part is missing in both of them.

These two woodcuts are accompanied with fragments of inscription in Polish, which elicits the titles of the ruler: VIVA IMAGO Naiasnieiszego Pana a Pana Stephana pierwszego | z Bożey łaski Króla Polskiego | wielkiego Książęcia Litewskiego | Ruskiego | Pruskiego | Zmodz-kiego | Mazowieckiego | Infanckiego | Woiewody Siedmigrockiego. Etc. Almost identical inscription, but written in Latin, occurs on the exemplar from Zürich: VIVA IMAGO | STEPHANI PRIMI D. G. REGIS | POLONIAE, MAGNI DVCIS LITVANIAE & CET | NEC NON PRINCIPIS TRANSILVANIAE, &cet.

Fig. 2, fig. 3. Portrait of Stefan Batory, (Viva imago Naiasnieiszego Pana…), woodcut, Cracow / Toruń (?), 1576 (?), Książnica Kopernikańska in Toruń, inv. no: K. fol. 143. Source: photo by Karolina Mroziewicz.

The composition, closed in a black frame, depicts the half-length figure of the ruler, three-quarters to the right. Batory is dressed in an elegant patterned robe, precisely a long linen garment called żupan, covered with delia – a garment which resembles a coat, with a collar made of fur. Kolpak, a headgear with a white feather, decorates his head. The king holds a sceptre in his left hand, while in the right one he carries the hilt of a sabre. On the left side there is a cartouche with the white eagle and the king’s coat of arms: three wolf’s fangs. The right part is closed by a curtain with pelmet and tassels.

All these elements refer to Batory as the Prince of Transylvania. Among the wide variety of dresses worn in the sixteenth-century Commonwealth of Poland, the king was depicted in the one which emphasised his Hungarian legacy. Although there was no one typical attire, Polish dresses were generally strongly influenced by Hungarian and oriental trends due to close connections with Hungary and the East during Batory’s reign as well as the idea of deriving Polish noblemen from the ancient Sarmatians (Ostrowski 2019: 271). Polish and Hungarian attire of that time had a lot in common. They were both derived from Turkey and stood in opposition to the Western fashion. Batory consciously chose to be represented in a way which would be associated with his Transylvanian roots and Hungarian connections.

All extant editions of the woodcut were coloured by hand, partially with the use of stencils, which is visible in the outer, red part of the coat, but also in the headgear and green surface of the curtain. The colours are limited to red, green, yellow, dusty pink, blue or light green and black or brown, depending on the edition. Generally, the location of colours is similar in all variants, but there are some differences in the part of cartouche, tassels and the visible fragment of hair. Furthermore, the hues differ slightly, especially in the part of fur, headgear, beard and moustaches, which are brown in the woodcut from Zürich and black in both prints from Toruń.

The questions of where and when were the woodcuts printed have not been solved yet. The one from Wick’s collection was thought to be printed in Nuremberg by Lucas Mayer active between 1566 and 1605, which is rather doubtful (Strauss 1975: 723, cat. 22). Another hypothesis links it with Cracow, the biggest centre of print production in the Commonwealth of Poland at that time. Bruno Weber suggested that the portrait could have been brought to Zürich by the humanist and theologian Krzysztof Trecy (ca. 1530-ca. 1590), who visited Switzerland eight times between 1567 and 1577 (Weber 2015: 90).

Nevertheless, it is assumed that the two woodcuts from Książnica were printed elsewhere. They were found in the cover of Eutropius’ Chronica (inv. no MAG 100020) printed by Melchior Nering, who was active in Poznań, but also Grodzisk Wielkopolski and Toruń (Kawecka-Gryczowa 1962: 282). When the book got to the collection this waste paper was taken out of its cover and restored. The connection between the book and discovered pieces of woodcuts resulted in associating them with Nering. The cover of Chronica was dated 1581 when the printer worked in Grodzisk. According to the researchers, these woodcuts were produced by Nering in Grodzisk either in 1579 (Komornicki 1935: 24) or between 1579 and 1581 (Kawecka-Gryczowa 1962, 282). Other hypotheses indicate that they were created in Toruń in the period between 1581 and 1587 in the printing house of Nering or Andrzej Koteniusz (Tujakowski 1970: 18; Jarzębowski 1969: 86).

Even if the question of place of production is unresolved, the issue of the portrait’s function seems to be obvious. Batory was known as the ruler who put strong emphasis on political propaganda. Such single-leaf woodcuts were presented in public places in the Commonwealth and served as a propaganda tool against the supporters of emperor Maximilian II, who was claimed as a king of Poland before Batory. Another example which evidences such function is a half-length portrait of the king, three-quarters to the right. The coat of arms, depicted next to the figure, is praised in a poem accompanying the print (Komornicki 1935: 18; Pirożyński 1992). The woodcut held in the Sächsische Staatsarchiv in Dresden might be the only existing example of this print (10697, no 64, 368-369). Again, it was coloured by hand.

Colours played an important role in this kind of formal portraits. They emphasised the meaning of each element; the coat of arms promoted Batory as a king, the sceptre recalled his function, while the sabre underlined his bravery. The latter referred to his affiliation to the noblemen, but was also a typical addition to Polish and Hungarian attire. The royal insignia, the sabre and the cartouche were painted yellow, which makes them more visible in comparison to the dark hues of other elements. If we assume that these woodcuts were hung on the walls in public places the fact that they were colourful made them very eye-catching.

Although the iconography of presented portraits seems to be quite typical for Batory’s images, the form of the print is rather exceptional in Polish context. If some of the sixteenth-century graphic portraits can be treated as the repetitions of paintings which do not exist anymore (Mrozowski 2021: 649-650), it is possible that these woodcuts belong to this group. They could also serve as patterns or, at least, as the source of motives for later painted or printed representations of Stefan Batory.

Quoted literature: 

Jarzębowski, Leonard, 1969. Druki toruńskie XVI wieku. [The sixteenth-century prints from Toruń] Toruń: Państwowy Instytut Wydawniczy.

Kawecka-Gryczowa, Alodia, 1962. “Melchior Nering.” In: Drukarze dawnej Polski od XV do XVIII wieku [Printers in old Poland from the 15th- to the 18th-century], vol. 4, pp. 272-291.Wrocław, Kraków: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, Wydawnictwo Polskiej Akademii Nauk.

Komornicki, Stefan, 1935. Essai d’une iconographie du roi Etienne Batory. Cracovie: Académie Polonaise des Sciences et des Lettres: Académie des Sciences Hongroise.

Mrozowski, Przemysław, 2021. Portret w Polsce w XVI wieku [The 16th-century portrait in Poland], Warszawa: Muzeum Pałacu Króla Jana III w Wilanowie.

Ostrowski, Jan K., 2019. Portret w dawnej Polsce [Portrait in old Poland], Warszawa: Muzeum Pałacu Króla Jana III w Wilanowie.

Pirożyński, Jan, 1992. “Plakat propagandowy na cześć Stefana Batorego wydany po jego elekcji (Ze zbiorów Archiwum Państwowego w Dreźnie)” [Propaganda poster printed in honour of Stefan Batory after his election (from the collection of the National Archive of Dresden)]. In: Roczniki Biblioteczne, vol. 42, pp. 129-135.

Pirożyński, Jan, 1993. “Kilka nieznanych lub mało znanych batorianów ze zbiorów Centralnej Biblioteki w Zurychu” [Few unknown or little known batoriana from the Central Library in Zürich]. Roczniki Biblioteczne, vol. 37, Wrocław: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, pp. 83-103.

Pirożyński, Jan, 1995. Z dziejów obiegu informacji w Europie XVI wieku. Nowiny z Polski w kolekcji Jana Jakuba Wicka w Zurychu z lat 1560-1587 [The history of circulation of information in the 16th-century Europe. News from Poland in the collection of Johann Jacob Wick in Zürich between 1560 and 1587], Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński, 1995.

Strauss, Walter L., 1975. The German single-leaf woodcut 1550-1600: a pictorial catalogue. Vol. 2, K-R. New York: Abaris Books.

Tujakowski, Alojzy, 1970. Z dziejów drukarstwa i piśmiennictwa na Pomorzu: 400 lat drukarstwa w Toruniu 1569-1969 [The history of printing and literature of Pomerania: 400 years of printing in Toruń 1569-1969], Warszawa: Ludowa Spółdzielnia Wydawnicza.

Weber, Bruno, 2015. “Eine Sammlung von Porträts. Variationen über das repräsentative Zur-Schau-Stellen”. In: Glanzlichter. Meisterwerke aus der Graphischen Sammlung und dem Fotoarchiv der Zentralbibliothek Zürich, Zürich: Zentralbibliothek Zürich, pp. 81-101.

Who Illuminated Incunabula in Cracow in the late Fifteenth Century?

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Until the beginning of the fifteenth century illuminating manuscripts in the Kingdom of Poland, as elsewhere in Europe, was the domain of clergy. Over the century this specialty went beyond cloisters and started to be also an occupation of laymen. In the late fifteenth century Cracow was the main centre of illumination production in the Kingdom. This period seems to be crucial due to the changes caused by the invention and development of the printing press. It enabled shorter, wider and cheaper book production and, at the same time, a high demand for printed books, not only liturgical ones, but also these which served educational purposes. Consequently, new groups of craftsmen, who bound and decorated books, appeared.

During the fifteenth century, the boundaries between different specializations of artisans were still not very clear. Sometimes a cathedralis, whose main task was to write a book, was simultaneously a bookbinder and illuminator (Lewicka-Kamińska 1972: 50). This tradition seems to be continued till the end of the century. Those who bound books were often also the authors of the decorations. Therefore, knowledge about the bookbinders of that period can be helpful in the research on illuminators.

It is estimated that about 30 bookbinders were active in the fifteenth-century Cracow. They worked in scriptoria at Wawel for the cathedral and for the royal court, but also at the University (Lewicka-Kamińska 2015: 406). Presumably, the situation of illuminators was similar. The phenomenon of layman bookbinders, and probably illuminators, was closely connected with the appearance of private and institutional libraries. The academic centres, such as Cracow, were great markets because of the need for educational books. At the University of Cracow, as in other European centres, students, both bachelors and masters, worked as bookbinders. They collected the most necessary tools in their dormitories where they worked (Lewicka-Kamińska 2015: 400).

The knowledge of the representatives of this group is still insufficient. Among many anonymous book’ decorators, two names emerged: Valentinus of Pilzno and Jakub Jeżowski. Valentinus started his studies at the University of Cracow in 1474, got his Bachelor’s degree (baccalaureus) in 1477 and Master’s degree (magister) in 1479. He was an active bookbinder and illuminator till his death in 1486. Anna Lewicka-Kamińska called him the most talented Cracovian bookbinder of this period, whose workshop existed till the end of the fifteenth century. The author claimed that Valentinus must have had assistants of great abilities due to the equal technical and artistic level of the workshop’s production (Lewicka-Kamińska 1974: 265). This assumption can be confirmed by the statement that the bookbinders did not work alone, but were supported by their colleagues or even had their own workshops where the tasks were divided; hence, decorations in one book could be made by different hands (Miodońska 1993: 98-99).

Valentinus’ activity was connected closely with the University because he bound and decorated his colleagues’ and professors’ books. One of them was Andrzej of Łabiszyn (d. 1498), the professor of canon law and theology and the rector of the University. Eight of incunabula which belonged to him were bound and decorated by Valentinus (today in the Jagiellonian Library: Inc. 550-551, Inc. 669, Inc. 829,  Inc. 1047, Inc. 1106, Inc. 1163, Inc. 1241, Inc. 1879; Szelińska 1966, 147-151; Lewicka-Kamińska 1974: 266; Wagner 2016: 120). He donated three manuscripts and twenty three incunabula to the Library of Collegium Maius, today’s Jagiellonian Library (Zathey, Lewicka-Kamińska, Hajdukiewicz 1966: 125).

Due to his activity as a bookbinder and illuminator Valentinus must have known the technical processes of making a book from different angles. Moreover, he was thought to be a bibliophile, who gathered books which were decorated and bound in his own workshop. Two examples preserved in the Jagiellonian Library are known: Avicenna’s Canon medicinae (shelf-mark Inc. 669), donated to the University by the owner and Margarita poetica by Albertus de Eyb (shelf-mark Inc. 446) which was provided with an inscription: Valentini liber (Lewicka-Kamińska 1974: 271).

The artisan’s name appeared also in another copy of Canon medicinae kept in the Jagiellonian Library (shelf-mark Inc. 670). Inscription on page 471, written in red lead, reads: Per Valentinum illuminatum, magistrum arcium cum stetit in bursa Hierusalem per sex dies tempore quadragesimali Anno domini 1480 et introligatus per eundem in C[racovia]. This very rare case of signing work by Cracow illuminator gives us a lot of evidence; it proves the double role of Valentinus (illuminator and bookbinder), the date (six days, during Lent in 1480) and place of creating the book as well as the existence of a scriptorium at the University of Cracow where books were written, decorated and bound by students (Ameisenowa 1958: 135). This workshop could have been located in Jerusalem dormitory, mentioned in the inscription, at Gołębia street. In 1910, nearby this place, an impressive collection of bookbinders’ stamps, dated to the fifteenth and sixteenth century, was found (Lewicka-Kamińska 1974: 270-271).

Fig. 1. Illuminated page of Avicenna, Canon medicinae. De viribus cordis (Padua: Petrus Rochabonellus, Mutius Prosdocimus, 1476), fol. a2, painted by Valentinus of Pilzno (?) in Cracow, c. 1480, Jagiellonian Library, Cracow, shelf-mark Inc. 670. Source: Jagiellonian Digital Library (public domain).

The printed text of Canon medicinae was filled in with many blue and red letters, simple in form, but at a high technical level. Initial I was composed of green acanthus leaves on a black background and closed in a pink frame. The letter was accompanied by the bust of a man in a red hat, sitting on a grey console. Ameisenowa noticed the realistic way of representing the figure’s face (Ameisenowa 1958: 135). The repetitive motive in Valentinus’ works were the three beads located on the margin. In this case they were painted in gold (fig. 1), whereas in another copy of Canon medicinae, next to initial F, pink, green and blue paints were used (fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Avicenna, Canon medicinae (Padua: Johann Herbort, 1479), fol. a1, illuminated initial F, painted by Valentinus of Pilzno (?) in Cracow, c. 1480, Jagiellonian Library, Cracow, shelf-mark Inc. 669. Source: Jagiellonian Digital Library (public domain).

According to Ameisenowa, one of the earliest incunabula decorated by Valentinus was the example of Catholicon by Johannes Balbus de Janua held in the Jagiellonian Library in Cracow. It was printed in Mainz in 1460. The initials and margins ornaments, made by Valentinus, represented typical stylistic features of his work. The letters were composed of soft acanthus leaves or, rarely, interlocking plants, while their inner side was filled in with yellow or golden zigzag pattern or diagonal lattice (fig. 3). Another characteristic feature was the use of minium as well as painting the initials in red and azure. The ornaments on margins consisted of long acanthus-like leaves which ended with long foliated scrolls. The wide range of colours used in this example included brown, azure, light blue, carmine, scarlet, maroon, two different hues of green and grey as well as gold, both liquid and golden leaf.

Fig. 3. Illuminated page of Johannes Balbus de Janua, Catholicon (Mainz: Johannes Guttenberg (?), 1460), fol. a2, initials and margins decorations painted by Valentinus of Pilzno (?) in Cracow, c. 1475, Jagiellonian Library, Cracow, shelf-mark Inc. 1011. Source: Jagiellonian Digital Library (public domain).

It seems that Valentinus was better in writing initials and rubrics than in painting ornaments or miniatures. An example of his more complex work was the one which belonged to the aforementioned example of Canon medicinae. It depicts Avicenna at an ill man’s bed, surrounded by seven other figures (fig. 4). A simple composition was enclosed in a green frame while people were distinguished by colourful robes. Valentinus’ illuminations were described as rather conservative and not diversified, especially in comparison with some other anonymous Cracovian decorations made in the 1480s or the ones created by Jakub Jeżowski.

Fig. 4. Valentinus of Pilzno, Avicenna at ill men’s bed, miniature, Cracow, c. 1479-1480, Jagiellonian Library, I.R. 41. Source: Jagiellonian Digital Library (public domain).

Jakub Jeżowski was a nobleman, the son of Stanisław of Jeżów, a student of the Cracovian Academy, illuminator, bookbinder and cathedral psalmist. Similarly to Valentinus, Jeżowski bound and decorated incunabula for the Academy’s professors. It was evidenced that he worked at least for three years for Piotr Świętopełk of Zembrzyce, professor of theology (d. 1497; Miodońska 1967: 107). He was a donor of 3 manuscripts and 202 incunabula to the Collegium Maius Library (Zathey, Lewicka-Kamińska, Hajdukiewicz 1966: 125).

Fig. 5. Illuminated page of Biblia Latina (Basel, c. 1480), fol. a1, initials and margins decorations painted by Jakub Jeżowski (?) in Cracow, c. 1484-1488, Jagiellonian Library, shelf-mark Inc. 1734. Source: by courtesy of the Early Printed Books collection of the Jagiellonian Library.

Decorations in the copy of the first part of Biblia Latina were ascribed to Jeżowski on the basis of the monogram .I. .I., visible on the coat of arms (fig. 5). In turn, the illuminations in the copy of the second part of Biblia Latina were attributed to him on the basis of stylistic features. In both examples the ornamentation was developed more than in Valentinus’ works. The main difference was the complex composition. Some initials were filled with the scenes, for example: initial F with Saint Jerome or initial B with David with a harp (fig. 6). Furthermore, purely decorative elements, such as a medallion with Creating of Eve as well as birds, human figures or an angel, entangled in the floral motives on the margins, appeared (fig. 7).

Fig. 6. Left: Biblia Latina, pars I (Basel, c. 1480), fol. a1, initial F and margins decorations painted by Jakub Jeżowski (?) in Cracow, c. 1484-1488, Jagiellonian Library, shelf-mark Inc. 1734, fol. a1. Right: Biblia Latina, pars II (Basel, c. 1480), fol. e1, initial B painted by Jakub Jeżowski (?) in Cracow, c. 1484-1488, Jagiellonian Library, shelf-mark Inc. 754. Source: by courtesy of the Early Printed Books collection of the Jagiellonian Library.
Fig. 7. Biblia Latina, pars I (Basel, c. 1480), fol. a5, decorative medallion (top) and margin decorations (bottom) painted by Jakub Jeżowski (?) in Cracow, c. 1484-1488, Jagiellonian Library, shelf-mark Inc. 1734. Source: by courtesy of the Early Printed Books collection of the Jagiellonian Library.

Among many anonymous authors of illuminations, Valentinus of Pilzno and Jakub Jeżowski were two documented names of incunabula illuminators, who worked for the community of the University of Cracow in the late fifteenth century. The ornaments which they produced represented various styles and different levels of development; nevertheless, they continued earlier tradition of manuscript decorations, characteristic for this region and time. Illuminations made in Cracow by this generation of craftsmen had a distinct influence on the style of incunabula decorations created in the first half of the sixteenth century.

 

Quoted literature:

Ameisenowa, Zofia, 1958. Rękopisy i pierwodruki iluminowane Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej [The manuscripts and illuminated incunabula in the Jagiellonian Library], Wrocław – Kraków: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich.

Lewicka-Kamińska, Anna, 1972. „Rzut oka na rozwój oprawy książkowej w Polsce” [The development of the bookbinding in Poland]. Roczniki Biblioteczne, vol. 16, Wrocław: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, pp. 49-68.

Lewicka-Kamińska, Anna, 1974. “Walenty Lis z Pilzna, introligator krakowski XV wieku” [Valentinus of Pilzno, Cracovian book-binder of the fifteenth century]. Roczniki Biblioteczne, vol. 18/1-2, pp. 265-273.

Lewicka-Kamińska, Anna, 2015. “Dzieje rzemiosła introligatorskiego” [The history of the craft of bookbinding], edited by Jacek Patryka. Terminus, vol. 17 (2015), n. 3 (34), Kraków: Biblioteka Jagiellońska, pp. 387-420.

Miodońska, Barbara, 1967. Iluminacje krakowskich rękopisów z I połowy w. XV w Archiwum Kapituły Metropolitalnej na Wawelu [The illuminations of the Cracow manuscripts of the first half of the 15th century in the Archives of the Cracow Cathedral Chapter], Kraków: Ministerstwo Kultury i Sztuki, Zarząd Muzeów i Ochrony Zabytków.

Miodońska, Barbara, 1993. Małopolskie malarstwo książkowe: 1320-1540 [Illuminated books in Małopolska], Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

Szelińska, Wacława, 1966. Biblioteki profesorów Uniwersytetu Krakowskiego w XV i początkach XVI wieku [The libraries of the professors of the University in Cracow in the 15th and 16th century], Wrocław: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich.

Wagner, Arkadiusz, 2016. Superekslibris polski: studium o kulturze bibliofilskiej i sztuce od średniowiecza do połowy XVII wieku [The Polish supralibros. The study on bibliophile culture and art from Medieval Ages up to the mid-17th century], Toruń: Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Mikołaja Kopernika.

Zathey Jerzy, Lewicka-Kamińska Anna, Hajdukiewicz Leszek, 1966. Historia Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej [The history of the Jagiellonian Library], vol. 1, Kraków: Uniwersytet Jagielloński.

Distinguished by Colour: Initials in two Copies of Missale Cracoviense (1515/1516)

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The early printed missals were dominated by two colours: black and red. This diversification of type colour played a practical role and was used already in the manuscripts. At the beginning the printing of both colours simultaneously was more expensive and complicated technically because it demanded the separate printing of each colour. Therefore, sometimes in the early incunabula the blank spaces were left and filled in with red text manually (Ikeda 2015: 65; König 2018: 267). These red fragments, called rubrics from the Latin ruber (red), described the commentaries and remarks for priests which were not supposed to be read to the faithful. Nigrics, from the Latin niger (black) were the prayers in black which should be read during the service (King 1957: 181-182). It is interesting that it was red, the more visible colour, which signalled the silent parts.

However, the use of colour was not only limited to the printed text. Hand-colouring was the main method of decorating woodcuts such as whole-page images and initials. Sometimes,  colour was used to emphasise the most important parts of the liturgy or prayers. The variety of initials as well as their modifications can be discussed on the example of two copies of Missale Cracoviense printed c. 1515/1516 by Johannes Haller in Cracow. The copy with no manual colouring is preserved in the Kórnik Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences (shelf-mark Cim.F.4107) while the illuminated copy is held in the Ossoliński National Institute in Wrocław (shelf-mark XVI.F.4053).

Fig. 1. Red printed initials and floral bordure in: Missale Cracoviense, 1515/1516 (Cracow: Johannes Haller), Ossoliński National Institute, Wrocław, shelf-mark XVI.F.4053, hereafter referred as copy A, fol. y2v. Source: Lower Silesian Digital Library (public domain).

These two liturgical books included few kinds of initials, differentiated by size and ornamentation. The first group was the same in both copies. It consisted of very simple, slightly bigger, two-line letters, printed in red (fig. 1, fig. 2). In most cases they marked the beginning of the paragraphs.

Fig. 2. Red printed initials in: Missale Cracoviense, 1515/1516 (Cracow: Johannes Haller), Kórnik Library of the Polish Academy of Sciences, shelf-mark Cim.F.4107, hereafter referred as copy B, fol. y2v. Source: Wielkopolska Digital Library (public domain).

The rest of the initials were black and white woodcuts, coloured manually in the case of the copy held in Ossolineum. Three-line initials were the second and the most considerable group (fig. 3). The letters were inscribed in a square while the background was filled with various floral motives. In the illuminated copy the majority of initials was painted by hand according to the scheme: a monochromatic letter and another or few other hues for the ornament.

Fig. 3. Initial H in: Missale Cracoviense, 1515/1516, fol. b1v: copy B (left), copy A (right).

Similar in form, but much bigger, were six- and eight-line initials, consisted of letters entangled in flowers, tendrils or geometrical shapes (fig. 4). In the illuminated copy one or two colours were used to decorate the letter and few others to paint the rest of the motives.

Fig. 4. Initial D in: Missale Cracoviense, 1515/1516, fol. r6v: copy B (left), copy A (right).

 In each of these cases the letters and other elements remained visible, the only change was the addition of colours. Nevertheless, significant changes appeared in the group of the biggest and the most elegant initials. In the uncoloured copy of the missal one can see figural initials, scenes which were connected directly to the proper part of liturgy, for example: the Nativity, the Magi, the Resurrection, the Assumption of Mary or the Trinity. In the colourful copy these scenes were painted so thoroughly that they were not visible (fig. 5). Woodcuts disappeared under a thick layer of paint. It covered the fleshy floral contours of the letters completely, while the spaces inside the letters were filled with gold. Maroon, red, blue, green and violet dominated this decoration. Presumably, such dark hues were used in order to cover the lines of the composition better.

Fig. 5. Initial E in: Missale Cracoviense, 1515/1516, fol. c3r: copy B (left), copy A (right).

These carefully designed hand-painted decorative elements were complemented with an exquisitely illuminated bordure made of floral and architectural ornaments. Such decorations on margins appeared only in combination with the most elegant initials, so they were meant to emphasise the indicated part of the text. The first page following the calendar part was decorated with an initial A and a bordure with vases and floral motives such as flowers, tendrils and leaves (fig. 6).

Fig. 6. Missale Cracoviense, 1515/1516, fol. a1r, copy B (left), copy A (right).

A distinctive element in the bottom left corner of the page was the Prus coats of arms in a wreath. The name written on the shield (Joannes Schikowsky) referred directly to the alleged owner of this exemplar, Johannes Szykowski (d. 1535), a clergyman, related to the cathedral in Cracow and the parish priest of Gnojno. A specific and local floral motif, which appeared on another page, twigs, leaves and flowers of carnation, was recognized as another feature which led to the same person. This characteristic element was connected with the ex-libris of Johannes Szykowski with four carnations flanking the composition (Gruczyński 1967: 57). Unfortunately, the original location of the bookplate is unknown. Zofia Ameisenowa made an assumption that it was made in the woodcut workshop working for the Cracow printer Florian Ungler c. 1530 (Ameisenowa 1947: 14-15; the connection between the two bookplates, the woodcut and the painted one, was, however, partially undermined by Anna Lewicka-Kamińska (1970: 143-146)).

The floral bordure, which surrounded the text from three sides, occurred also on the first page of the Canon in the illuminated copy of the book. This special part of the missal, printed on the parchment and containing the most important liturgical prayer, begins with the words “Te igitur”, starting with the letter T. Its shape was associated with the cross and, therefore, in many cases it was decorated in an exceptional way. In this copy of Missale Cracoviense it was the five-line initial with a figurative scene, the only one in the whole book which had not been painted over. It represented the sacrifice of Isaac, which, within this context, referred directly to the sacrifice of Christ as God’s only Son (fig. 7).

Fig. 7. Initial T in: Missale Cracoviense, 1515/1516, fol. a2r, copy A.

The Canon part was preceded by the whole-page woodcut depicting Crucifixion. It is worth noticing that its colours referred to other elements of decoration. First of all, the hues resembled the ones used in the biggest initials with gold. Second of all, the double frame of the woodcut corresponded to the figural initial on the adjacent page. Red used in the inner frame and grey used in the outer frame were repeated in the initial. This colour scheme brings the two images even closer to each other and suggests a direct connection between the meaning of these two scenes. Unfortunately, the copy held in Kórnik lacks the Canon part, which prevents further comparisons and conclusions.

An elegant and refined decoration of illuminated copy of the Missale Cracoviense consisted of five kinds of colourful initials, coloured Crucifixion and a subtle ornamental bordure. Covering the figural initials with paint so thoroughly that they were invisible can be an evidence of a strong attachment to the medieval way of perceiving a book. The owner of the illuminated copy must have been a bibliophile, for whom the colour added manually to the printed book had a special artistic and aesthetic value. Yet, the illuminations which he had commissioned did not respect the original iconographic programme of the book. The original meaning and function of the most significant initials have been lost in the illuminated copy of the Missale (fig. 8). By means of colour the illuminator has interpreted the iconography of the missal and, at the same time, created, in fact, a new work of art.

Fig. 8. Missale Cracoviense, 1515/1516, fol. q3v: copy B (left), copy A (right).

Quoted literature:

Ameisenowa, Zofia 1947. Dwa nieznane polskie znaki książkowe z XVI wieku [Two unknown Polish sixteenth-century bookplates]. Kraków: Towarzystwo Miłośników Książki.

Gruczyński, Stanisław, 1967. “Ekslibris Jana Szykowskiego” [Jan Szykowski’s bookplate]. Roczniki Biblioteczne, vol. 11, no. 1/2: pp. 55-61.

Ikeda, Mayumi, 2015. “The Fust and Schöffer Office and the Printing of the Two-Colour Initials in the 1457 Mainz Psalter”. In Printing Colour 1400-1700, edited by Ad Stijnman and Elizabeth Savage, pp. 65-75. Leiden, Boston: Brill.

Kawecka-Gryczowa, Alodia, 1983. “Haller Jan.” In Drukarze dawnej Polski, pp. 44-62.

King, Archdale A., 1957. “Rubrics”. In: Liturgy of the Roman Church, pp. 181-183. London: Longmans.

König, Eberhard 2018. “Colour for the Black Art”. In Painting the Page in the Age of Print: Central European Manuscript Illumination of the Fifteenth Century, edited by Jeffrey F. Hamburger, Robert Suckale, Gude Suckale-Redlefsen, translated by David Sánchez, pp. 265-290. Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies.

Lewicka-Kamińska, Anna 1970. “Ekslibris Anonima herbu Prus I” [The bookplate of the Anonim of the Prus coat of arms I]. Biuletyn Biblioteki Jagiellońskiej, vol. 20, no. 1/2: pp. 141–146, il. 12.

Between Miniature and Print: Colour in Two Editions of Missale Cracoviense

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The relationship between miniature and print in the early sixteenth-century liturgical book was very close. During the Middle Ages liturgical books were copied manually. This resulted in changes, errors, omissions, which caused serious differences between them and, therefore, in the rites of the liturgy. Since the half of the fifteenth century the attempts to minimise this incoherence of texts were made by the popes, but the process lasted long and was difficult to control. In 1453 Pope Nicholas V demanded that within a year all parishes should have corrected their missals according to the cathedral missals. Nevertheless, it was still unsuccessful until the printing method enabled such demands to be more realistic.

At that time liturgical books started to be standardised, at least within the dioceses. Bishops ordered the same printed liturgical books and made the parishes buy them. In such a way they tried to unify the liturgy. Catholic Church’s councils and synods demanded to buy and use only confirmed texts. The fact that each diocese was supposed to use only the missals or breviaries prepared especially for them, increased the demand for the printed book and contributed to the development of printing in the Polish lands.

Cracow was one of the first Polish centres where such a reform began. At the turn of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the main entrepreneur in Cracow was Johannes Haller. He used his connections with the clergy and secured himself by getting the privilege from Fryderyk Jagiellończyk, the bishop of Cracow and the archbishop of Gniezno for printing the liturgical books. Such privileges were given by the clergy or rulers in order to secure the rights of the publisher and prevent others from printing the same book.

An exclusive right gained by Haller to print the two variants of Missale Cracoviense, was one of the first privileges for printers at all (Juda 1992: 33-34). Before each new edition Haller renewed the privilege and, therefore, he was assured of getting a lot of commissions and a stable income. In order to publish these missals for the Cracovian diocese, Haller started to cooperate with Georg Stuchs, a minor printer from Nuremberg. These two examples were one of the first missals commissioned by Haller (Kawecka-Gryczowa 1983: 45-47). Furthermore, they were printed abroad before he started his own publishing house in Cracow.

The first one, the copy of which is preserved in the Jagiellonian Library in Cracow (shelf-mark Inc. 2861), was printed probably just after granting the privilege, ca. 1494. Pages of the missal were decorated both with miniatures and hand-coloured woodcuts. These prints were initials and two whole-page figurative scenes: Saint Stanisław Resurrecting Piotrowin accompanied by Fryderyk Jagiellończyk (fig.1) on the title page and Crucifixion (fig.2) on the page preceding the Canon Missae. Canon was the most important part of the book, often printed on parchment whereas the rest was printed on paper. According to tradition, which goes back to the handwritten missals, it started with the representation of the Crucifixion. The woodcut from this copy of Missale Cracoviense was coloured manually with water-based pigments in a typical, limited palette: blue, green, yellow and red (Primeau 2013: 3). The most intensive spots of colour were the Virgin’s and Saint John’s clothes. Also, the angel’s dress and wings were painted with intensive dark green while the parts of the wings of all angels were painted dark blue, green and orange. The colouring is very precise and only very few places are left without any hue, the most visible one being the Apostle’s feet. It seems that even the use of green in the crown of thorns was thought to fit the other elements well.

Fig. 1. Saint Stanisław Resurrecting Piotrowin accompanied by Fryderyk Jagiellończyk in: Missale Cracoviense (Nuremberg: Georg Stuchs, ca. 1494), full-page hand-painted woodcut on parchment, unnumbered title page, Jagiellonian Library, Cracow, shelf-mark Inc. 2861. Source: photo by the Photographic Studio of the National Museum in Cracow.
Fig. 2. Crucifixion in: Missale Cracoviense (Nuremberg: Georg Stuchs, ca. 1494), full-page hand-painted woodcut on parchment (washed in colours, partially painted in gold), unnumbered page, before the Canon of the Mass, Jagiellonian Library, Cracow, shelf-mark Inc. 2861. Source: photo by the Photographic Studio of the National Museum in Cracow.

It is significant that the image of the crucified Christ was very often one of the biggest colourful elements in the whole book. As Primeau suggested “the addition of colour made the images more eye-catching, naturalistic and legible” (Primeau: 2). It seems that the function of colour was to catch the eye of the user and make them stop and contemplate the image of suffering Christ. Such interpretation can be confirmed by the statement that “hues have conveyed meanings that brought the viewer into a closer connection with the divine” (ibid.: 2).

An important and typical feature was the Saviour’s blood which flowed on his head and neck, on arms and hands as well as on the stomach, legs and feet. The presence of blood was an inherent element of coloured scenes of Crucifixion. As the “good” type of red it symbolised the purification and redemption (Adamska 2015: 13; Dackermann 2002: 29-30). The well-considered colouring was emphasised even more by the golden background and halos around the figures’ heads. It is worth noticing that the black frame, typical for the woodcuts, was coloured in an alternate way, in green and red. Again, it seems to be a well-thought idea which fulfils the whole work of art.

The margins of the woodcut were surrounded with an elegant, floral frame composed of flowers. The use of gold and the double frame, the tiny one and a very decorative floral frame on the margins made this composition elegant and precious. One can assume that such form was thought to catch the viewer’s eye and let him admire and contemplate the scene. This elegant way of colouring, distinguished by the golden background, makes the woodcut look more as a miniature than a print. Although the style of the illuminations is already different from earlier ornaments, the way of colouring the woodcuts indicates that it still represented the medieval way of thinking.

Another example of such imitation is the second edition of Missale Cracoviense, which was smaller and destined to be used during travelling. Its copy is also held in the Jagiellonian Library in Cracow (shelf-mark Inc. 2850). This liturgical book was commissioned by Haller and printed by Stuchs in Nuremberg between 1493 and 1500. In this case the scene on the title page (Saint Stanisław Resurrecting Piotrowin accompanied by Fryderyk Jagiellończyk) is uncoloured, only the halo of the saint was painted in gold. Sixteen pages were decorated with hand-coloured woodcut initials and floral illuminations on the margins.

An interesting addition was the woodcut by Lucas Cranach the Elder depicting Crucifixion (fig. 3) which was subsequently pasted on a page before the Canon Missae. It was impressed on parchment and painted very thoroughly with opaque paints (Jurkowlaniec, Herman 2021: 3-4). The scene is much more extended in comparison to the Crucifixion of the ca. 1494 edition of Missale (cf. fig. 2). The figures are not so stiff while the landscape background is full of details. The two prints represent different attitudes of composing space and human figure. Both examples are very precious and elegant, the colour is intensive in each case. However, the shiny golden print stands in contrast with the opaque paints of Cranach’s work. This print is really exceptional because of the subtlety and diversification of colours as well as the lights marked with the white paint. Gold was used here in the halos and as a tiny addition to the saints’ clothes.

Fig. 3. Lucas Cranach, Crucifixion in: Missale Cracoviense (Nuremberg: Georg Stuchs, ca. 1494-1500), full-page hand-painted woodcut on parchment (washed in colours, partially painted in gold), unnumbered page, before the Canon of the Mass, Jagiellonian Library, Cracow, shelf-mark Inc. 2850. Source: photo by the Photographic Studio of the National Museum in Cracow.

All in all, the two editions of Missale Cracoviense are good examples of the infiltration between miniature and print. The manner of painting woodcuts almost thoroughly so that the lines were hardly visible as well as the use of gold and decorative floral motives on margins confirm the thesis that these colourful elements imitated the decoration of illuminated manuscripts. Moreover, it proves a high demand that the liturgical books should still resemble the well-known medieval form.

Quoted literature:

Adamska, Anna, 2015. “Gra w kolory. Rola barw w średniowiecznym systemie komunikacji społecznej” [Playing with colours: the role of colours in the medieval system of social communication]. Roczniki Historyczne 81: pp. 7-34.

Dackermann, Susan, 2002. Painted Prints: The Revelation of Color in Northern Renaissance & Baroque Engravings, Etchings & Woodcuts. Baltimore: Baltimore Museum of Art; University Park: Pennsylvania University Press.

Juda, Maria, 1992. Przywileje drukarskie w Polsce [The privileges of printers in Poland], Lublin: Agencja Wydawniczo-Handlowa AD.

Jurkowlaniec, Grażyna, Herman, Magdalena, 2021. “Introduction”. In The Reception of the Printed Image in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries: Multiplied and Modified, edited by Grażyna Jurkowlaniec and Magdalena Herman, pp. 1-23. New York: Routledge.

Kawecka-Gryczowa, Alodia, 1983. “Haller Jan.” In: Drukarze dawnej Polski, pp. 44-62.

Primeau, Thomas, 2013. “Coloring Within the Lines: The Use of Stencil in Early Woodcuts,” Art in Print”, 3/ 3. Available online: https://artinprint.org/article/coloring-within-the-lines-the-use-of-stencil-in-early-woodcuts/ (accessed: 20.11.2020)